Wikipedia

Westerse kultuur

Westerse kultuur, ook bekend as Westerse beskawing, Europese beskawing, Westerse kultuur, of Westerse samelewing, sluit die diverse erfenisse van sosiale norme, etiese waardes, tradisionele gebruike, geloofstelsels, politieke stelsels, artefakte en tegnologieë van die Westerse wêreld in. Antropologies verwys die term "Westers" na die klassieke erakultuur wat in Antieke Griekeland en Antieke Rome ontstaan ​​het, en later na verskillende wêrelddele versprei het.[1] Die kern van die Westerse beskawing, breedweg omskryf, word gevorm deur die gekombineerde grondslae van die Grieks-Romeinse beskawing en die Christendom. Terwyl Westerse kultuur 'n breë konsep is, en nie verband hou met 'n streek met vaste lede of geografiese beperkings nie, hou dit gewoonlik verband met die kulture van lande met historiese bande met 'n Europese land of 'n aantal Europese lande, of met die verskeidenheid kulture binne Europa self.[2]

Leonardo da Vinci se Vitruviaanse Man, gebaseer op die korrelasies van ideale menslike proporsies met meetkunde beskryf deur die antieke Romeinse argitek Vitruvius in Boek III van sy verhandeling De architectura
Plato, waarskynlik die mees invloedryke figuur in die vroeë Westerse filosofie, het feitlik al die daaropvolgende Westerse en Midde-Oosterse filosofie en teologie beïnvloed.

Westerse kultuur word gekenmerk deur 'n magdom artistieke, filosofiese, literêre en regstemas en tradisies. Christendom, hoofsaaklik die Katolieke Kerk,[3][4][5] en later Protestantisme[6][7][8][9] het 'n prominente rol gespeel in die vorming van die Westerse beskawing sedert ten minste die 4de eeu,[10][11][12][13][14] net soos Judaïsme.[15][16][17][18] 'n Hoeksteen van Westerse denke, wat in antieke Griekeland begin en deur die Middeleeue en Renaissance voortduur, is die idee van rasionalisme in verskeie lewensfere wat deur Hellenistiese filosofie, skolastiek en humanisme ontwikkel is. Empirisme het later aanleiding gegee tot die wetenskaplike metode, die Wetenskaplike Rewolusie en Die eeu van die Rede.

Terwyl die Fenisiese stadstate tradisioneel vermy is as 'n hoofbron van die Westerse beskawing ten gunste van vroeë Egeïese kulture, het die Fenisiese stadstate die Westerse beskawing gestimuleer en bevorder.[19] Die uitbreiding van die Griekse kultuur na die Hellenistiese wêreld van die oostelike Middellandse See het gelei tot 'n sintese tussen Griekse en Nabye-Oosterse kulture;[20] groot vooruitgang in letterkunde, ingenieurswese en wetenskap; en het die kultuur verskaf vir die uitbreiding van die vroeë Christendom en die Griekse Nuwe Testament.[21][22][23] Hierdie tydperk het oorvleuel met en is gevolg deur Rome, wat sleutelbydraes in die reg, regering, ingenieurswese en politieke organisasie gemaak het.[24]

Westerse kultuur het voortgegaan om te ontwikkel met die kerstening van die Europese samelewing gedurende die Middeleeue, die hervormings wat veroorsaak is deur die Middeleeuse renaissances, die invloed van die Islamitiese wêreld via Al-Andalus en Sisilië (insluitend die oordrag van tegnologie uit die Ooste, en Latynse vertalings van Arabiese tekste oor wetenskap en filosofie deur Griekse en Hellenies-beïnvloed Islamitiese filosowe),[25][26][27] en die Italiaanse Renaissance soos Griekse geleerdes wat na die val van Konstantinopel gevlug het, klassieke tradisies en filosofie gebring het.[28] Hierdie groot verandering vir nie-Westerse lande en hul mense het 'n ontwikkeling in modernisering in daardie lande beleef.[29] Middeleeuse Christendom word gekrediteer met die skepping van die moderne universiteit,[30][31] die moderne hospitaalstelsel,[32] wetenskaplike ekonomie,[33][34] en natuurreg (wat later die skepping van internasionale reg sou beïnvloed).[35] Europese kultuur het ontwikkel met 'n komplekse reeks filosofie, Middeleeuse skolastiek, mistiek en Christelike en sekulêre humanisme.[36] Rasionele denke het ontwikkel deur 'n lang tydperk van verandering en vorming, met die eksperimente van die Verligting en deurbrake in die wetenskappe. Tendense wat moderne Westerse samelewings definieer het, sluit in die konsep van politieke pluralisme, individualisme, prominente subkulture of teenkulture (soos New Age-bewegings) en toenemende kulturele sinkretisme as gevolg van globalisering en menslike migrasie.

Verwysings

wysig
  1. ↑ Hanson, Victor Davis (18 Desember 2007). Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power (in Engels). Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-42518-8. the term "Western" — refer to the culture of classical antiquity that arose in Greece and Rome; survived the collapse of the Roman Empire; spread to western and northern Europe; then during the great periods of exploration and colonization of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries expanded to the Americas, Australia and areas of Asia and Africa; and now exercises global political, economic, cultural, and military power far greater than the size of its territory or population might otherwise suggest.
  2. ↑ Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2006). Western Civilization (in Engels). Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-534-64602-8. people in these early civilizations viewed themselves as subjects of states or empires, not as members of Western civilization. With the rise of Christianity during the Late Roman Empire, however, peoples in Europe began to identify themselves as part of a civilization different from others, such as that of Islam, leading to a concept of a Western civilization different from other civilizations. In the fifteenth century, Renaissance intellectuals began to identify this civilization not only with Christianity but also with the intellectual and political achievements of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Important to the development of the idea of a distinct Western civilization were encounters with other peoples. Between 700 and 1500, encounters with the world of Islam helped define the West. But after 1500, as European ships began to move into other parts of the world, encounters with peoples in Asia, Africa, and the Americas not only had an impact on the civilizations found there but also affected how people in the West defined themselves. At the same time, as they set up colonies, Europeans began to transplant a sense of Western identity to other areas of the world, especially North America and parts of Latin America, that have come to be considered part of Western civilization
  3. ↑ Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2016). Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1715 (Cengage Learning uitg.). Cengage Learning. p. 156. ISBN 978-1-305-63347-6.
  4. ↑ Neill, Thomas Patrick (1957). Readings in the History of Western Civilization, Volume 2 (Newman Press uitg.). p. 224.
  5. ↑ O'Collins, Gerald; Farrugia, Maria (2003). Catholicism: The Story of Catholic Christianity. Oxford University Press. p. v (preface). ISBN 978-0-19-925995-3.
  6. ↑ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), pp. 317–319, 325–326
  7. ↑ The Protestant Heritage Geargiveer 23 Februarie 2018 op Wayback Machine, Britannica
  8. ↑ McNeill, William H. (2010). History of Western Civilization: A Handbook (University of Chicago Press uitg.). University of Chicago Press. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-226-56162-2.
  9. ↑ Faltin, Lucia; Melanie J. Wright (2007). The Religious Roots of Contemporary European Identity (A&C Black uitg.). A&C Black. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-8264-9482-5.
  10. ↑ Roman Catholicism Geargiveer 6 Mei 2015 op Wayback Machine, "Roman Catholicism, Christian church that has been the decisive spiritual force in the history of Western civilization". Encyclopædia Britannica
  11. ↑ Caltron J.H Hayas, Christianity and Western Civilization (1953), Stanford University Press, p. 2: That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization—the civilization of western Europe and of America—have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo–Christianity, Catholic and Protestant.
  12. ↑ Jose Orlandis, 1993, "A Short History of the Catholic Church", 2nd edn. (Michael Adams, Trans.), Dublin:Four Courts Press, ISBN 1851821252, preface, see [1] Geargiveer 2 Januarie 2023 op Wayback Machine, accessed 8 December 2014. p. (preface)
  13. ↑ Thomas E. Woods and Antonio Canizares, 2012, "How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization," Reprint edn., Washington, D.C.: Regnery History, ISBN 1596983280, see accessed 8 December 2014. p. 1: "Western civilization owes far more to Catholic Church than most people—Catholic included—often realize. The Church in fact built Western civilization."
  14. ↑ Marvin Perry (1 Januarie 2012). Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789. Cengage Learning. pp. 33–. ISBN 978-1-111-83720-4.
  15. ↑ Noble, Thomas F. X. (1 Januarie 2013). Western civilization : beyond boundaries (7th uitg.). Boston, MA. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-133-60271-2. OCLC 858610469.{{cite book}}: AS1-onderhoud: plek sonder uitgewer (link)
  16. ↑ Marvin Perry; Myrna Chase; James Jacob; Margaret Jacob; Jonathan W Daly (2015). Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society, Volume I: To 1789. Cengage Learning. p. 105. ISBN 978-1-305-44548-2.
  17. ↑ Hengel, Martin (2003). Judaism and Hellenism : studies in their encounter in Palestine during the early Hellenistic period. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59244-186-0. OCLC 52605048.
  18. ↑ Porter, Stanley E. (2013). Early Christianity in its Hellenistic context. Volume 2, Christian origins and Hellenistic Judaism : social and literary contexts for the New Testament. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-9004234765. OCLC 851653645.
  19. ↑ Scott, John C (2018). "The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World". Comparative Civilizations Review. Brigham Young University. 78 (78). ISSN 0733-4540.
  20. ↑ Green, Peter. Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
  21. ↑ Russo, Lucio (2004). The Forgotten Revolution: How Science Was Born in 300 BC and Why It Had To Be Reborn. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 3-540-20396-6.
  22. ↑ "Hellenistic Age". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. 
  23. ↑ Green, P (2008). Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age. Phoenix. p. xiii. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9.
  24. ↑ Jonathan Daly (19 Desember 2013). The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization. A&C Black. pp. 7–9. ISBN 978-1-4411-1851-6.
  25. ↑ Haskins, Charles Homer (1927), The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-6747-6075-2, https://archive.org/details/renaissanceoftw00char 
  26. ↑ George Sarton: A Guide to the History of Science Waltham Mass. U.S.A. 1952
  27. ↑ Burnett, Charles. "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century", Science in Context, 14 (2001): 249–288.
  28. ↑ Geanakoplos, Deno John (1989). Constantinople and the West : essays on the late Byzantine (Palaeologan) and Italian Renaissances and the Byzantine and Roman churches. Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-11880-0. OCLC 19353503.
  29. ↑ "Western Civilization: Roots, History and Culture". TimeMaps (in Engels (VSA)). Besoek op 17 Februarie 2022.
  30. ↑ Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-36105-2, pp. xix–xx
  31. ↑ Verger 1999
  32. ↑ Risse, Guenter B. (April 1999). Mending Bodies, Saving Souls: A History of Hospitals. Oxford University Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-19-505523-8.
  33. ↑ Schumpeter, Joseph (1954). History of Economic Analysis. London: Allen & Unwin.
  34. ↑ "Review of How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization by Thomas Woods, Jr". National Review Book Service. Geargiveer vanaf die oorspronklike op 22 Augustus 2006. Besoek op 16 September 2006.
  35. ↑ Cf. Jeremy Waldron (2002), God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK), ISBN 978-0-521-89057-1, pp. 189, 208
  36. ↑ Sailen Debnath, 2010, "Secularism: Western and Indian", New Delhi, India:Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, ISBN 8126913665.Sjabloon:Page needed
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